# Chapter XI. Uses of basic energy statistics and balances
## A. Introduction
11.1. This chapter illustrates the different uses of the data items presented in chapter VI and the energy balances presented in chapter VIII in the compilation of other statistics or for indicators related to energy statistics.
11.2. Section B presents a brief description of the energy accounts of SEEA-Energy. The section describes the main differences in concepts and definitions between energy balances and energy accounts, the main adjustments needed to link the two systems and the need for additional data items that will allow the compilation of energy accounts from energy balances.
11.3. Section C describes a list of energy indicators as an important tool for monitoring policies. Most of these indicators can be derived from the data items presented in chapter VI.
11.4. Section D provides some reference for the use of basic energy statistics and balances in the calculation of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions. Methods for the calculation of such emissions are discussed here, although details are not provided and the user is referred to the IPCC guidelines instead.
## B. The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Energy
11.5. The forthcoming SEEA-Energy provides a conceptual framework for organizing energy-related information in a coherent manner consistent with the concepts, definitions and classifications of the SNA.[^82] It supports analyses of the role of energy within the economy and the relationship between energy-related activities and the environment. SEEA-Energy consists of three main types of accounts, namely:
(a) Physical flow accounts in which flows of energy are recorded in energy units. They record the flow of energy from natural inputs from the environment to the economy, within the economy (as energy products) and from the economy to the environment (as losses and returns of energy to the environment). The various energy flows are recorded in the physical supply and use table (PSUT).
(b) Monetary flow accounts for energy-related transactions, which record the monetary transactions related to physical flows of energy in a supply and use table framework. These accounts focus on the transactions within the economy and therefore do not cover flows between the environment and the economy.
(c) Asset accounts in physical and monetary terms, which describe stocks[^83] at the beginning and end of the accounting year and the changes therein. The asset accounts are compiled for mineral and energy resources and provide information on the availability of the resource in the environment, its extraction pattern and depletion rate.
### 1. Main differences between energy balances and energy accounts
11.6. The main differences between energy balances and energy accounts are presented in three groups: conceptual differences, differences in terminology and presentational differences.
**Conceptual differences**
11.7. The main conceptual difference between energy balances and accounts is the geographical coverage. The reference territory for energy balances is the national territory, and statistics are compiled for all units physically located in that territory. Units physically located outside the territory are considered to be part of the rest of the world. This coverage is referred to as the territory principle.
11.8. Energy accounts, on the other hand, use a geographic coverage based on all institutional units resident in a particular national economy—independent of where they are physically located. Units that are not resident units are considered to be part of the rest of the world. This geographical coverage is referred to as the residence principle. An institutional unit is considered a resident unit of a country when its centre of predominant economic interest is within the economic territory of the country.[^84] Generally, the economic territory will align with the physical boundary of a country, but adjustments are made for embassies, consulates, military bases, scientific stations and the like, which belong only to the economic territory of the country they represent.
11.9. The use of the territory or residence principle leads to differences in the way certain statistics are recorded (e.g., imports/exports/use, international bunkers, etc.).
11.10. The use of the territory principle implies that imports and exports cover all transactions between units physically present in the territory and units physically located outside the territory, independent of the residence status of the units involved (thus trade follows the physical movement of the goods). In addition, transactions between units physically located within the territory are never recorded as imports/exports even if the residence status of the units involved differs. Using the residence principle in energy accounts, however, imports/exports cover transactions between resident and non-resident units independent of the location where the transaction occurs, whether it is abroad (e.g. in the case of national tourists abroad), or in the national territory (e.g. in the case of foreign companies refueling inland).
11.11. The same goes for recording the uses of products. While in the energy balance the use of energy in the territory covers the use by all units physically located in the territory, in energy accounts, it covers only the use of units resident in the national economy—the use by non-resident units is recorded as an export (provided that the supplying unit is considered resident). In addition, in energy accounts the use of energy products would also include the use by resident units abroad, with the counterpart transaction on the supply side being an import. This is the case, for example, of residents who refuel their own vehicles abroad and ships operated by residents which are refueled abroad.
**Differences in terminology**
11.12. There are differences in the use of certain terms in energy accounts and energy balances. For example, terms such as "supply", "final consumption", "stocks" and "stock changes" are well-defined in both balances and accounts, but their definitions differ.
11.13. Supply. In energy balances, the term supply represents energy entering the national territory for the first time, less energy exiting from the national territory (through exports or international bunkering) and stock changes. Thus:
Total energy supply = Primary energy production
+ Import of primary and secondary energy
− Export of primary and secondary energy
− International (aviation and marine) bunkers
− Stock changes
11.14. In energy accounts, the term supply is defined as the sum of the production of primary energy and imports (according to the residence principle) of energy products.[^85] Thus, exports, international bunkers and stock changes, together with intermediate consumption and capital formation are all considered uses. In addition, international bunkering is recorded in the energy accounts as intermediate consumption if the bunkering is undertaken by a ship operated by a resident unit, or as exports if the ship is operated by a non-resident unit.
11.15. Final consumption. In energy balances final consumption refers to the use of fuel, electricity and heat delivered to final consumers of energy for both their energy and non-energy uses. It excludes the use of energy products in energy industries (and by other energy producers) as input into transformation and energy industries own use. In energy accounts, the term final consumption is used to denote the use of goods and services by individual households or the government to satisfy their individual or collective needs or wants. However, when the goods and services are used as inputs to the production process by economic units, this is referred to as intermediate consumption.
11.16. Stocks and stock changes. The concepts of stocks and stock changes defined in energy balances correspond to "inventories" and "changes in inventories" in SEEA-Energy (and SNA 2008). In addition, the stock changes appear in the balances as part of the total supply, while in the energy accounts they appear as part of use.
**Presentational differences**
11.17. In the standard tables of energy accounts, the presentation of statistics for economic activities and households strictly follows the principles of classification and the structure of the ISIC Rev. 4. Thus, information on any specific enterprise/establishment (be it on the production or on the consumption side) is presented under the ISIC category of the principal activity of the unit involved. Energy balances, however, do not follow the same principle, as information on a specific enterprise/establishment is not completely linked to the relevant ISIC category of the unit involved. Rather, it is presented in different sections of the balances depending on the type of use and the ISIC category of the unit involved.
11.18. A typical example is the use of energy for transport purposes. While detailed information on the use of energy for transport and other purposes is collected from individual statistical units, data are shown in different ways in energy balances and energy accounts. In energy accounts, data are presented strictly by ISIC category of the statistical units involved, showing transport and other uses of energy within the ISIC class of the unit involved. In energy balances on the other hand, a total aggregate for "transport" is introduced, showing the total energy use for transport purposes by all economic activities, broken down into modes of transport. As a result, the portion of energy used for transport purposes by individual ISIC industries is not included in the other aggregates for final consumption of energy (such as for wholesalers or manufacturers) in energy balances.[^86]
11.19. Another example is the energy used for producing other energy products. While energy accounts follow strict ISIC categories, energy balances record energy that is transformed into different products in the entry "transformation" (broken down by transformation technology), and energy consumed to support energy production in the entry "energy industries own use".
11.20. The energy balance allows for the balancing item "statistical difference", while the energy accounts, by design, do not allow for discrepancy between supply and use. In cases where there is a difference between supply and use, reconciliation and allocation of this quantity to specific flows are needed to reduce or eliminate any discrepancies.
### 2. Adjustments for the compilation of energy accounts
11.21. Basic energy statistics and energy balances can be used as a data source for the compilation of the SEEA-Energy physical supply and use tables. However, because of the differences in concepts and definitions, adjustments are needed in order to compile the energy accounts.
11.22. Adjustments on imports/exports. In order to include imports and exports from the energy balances into the energy accounts, adjustments are needed to relate them to transactions between resident and non-resident units, such as the inclusion of fuel purchases by residents abroad as imports.
11.23. Other adjustments for geographical coverage. Other examples relate to the case for international marine and aviation bunkering and for items in the bottom block of the balances. In addition, the different uses of energy products of energy balances need to be disaggregated so that they can be recorded as "intermediate/final consumption" when the unit is resident or "export" when the unit is non-resident, and complemented with the use by resident units abroad. This is similar to the case of international bunkering.
11.24. It should also be noted that, in principle, some additional adjustments might be necessary to the geographical coverage to exclude foreign territorial enclaves in the national territory and/or include national territorial enclaves in the rest of the world. These areas are clearly demarcated land areas (such as embassies, consulates, etc.) located in other territories and used by governments that own or rent them for diplomatic, military or scientific purposes. These areas are excluded from the basic statistics and energy balances when located abroad, whereas foreign enclaves are included when located in the national territory. For statistics presented by the accounting framework, on the contrary, national enclaves in the rest of the world are included, while foreign enclaves in the national territory are excluded.
11.25. Reallocation/regrouping of data to the relevant ISIC category. In order to compile energy accounts, information has to be regrouped according to the different ISIC categories. Information on "transformation", "transport", "non-energy use", "energy industries own use" and "primary production" are examples of items that need to be reallocated in order to present information on a purely ISIC-based tabulation, such as that used in SEEA-Energy.
11.26. Bridge tables may be constructed to clearly show the links for the total supply and total use of the different products between the energy accounts and the energy balances.
**Additional data items necessary for the compilation of energy accounts**
11.27. In order to compile energy accounts, it is important to have information that allows for the adjustments presented in the previous section. Such information includes, for example the breakdown of deliveries for international bunkering of resident and non-resident units, deliveries to resident and non-resident final consumers, and the use of energy products by resident units abroad.
11.28. In view of the above differences, countries are encouraged to clearly document and make available the methods used for the reallocation and adjustment of data provided by basic energy statistics and balances to energy accounts.
## C. Energy indicators
11.29. Energy indicators are a useful tool for summarizing information and monitoring trends reflecting various aspects of a country's energy situation over time. A number of indicators can be compiled from basic energy statistics, energy balances and energy accounts.
11.30. The choice of the set of indicators compiled by a country depends on national circumstances and priorities, sustainability and development criteria and objectives, as well as data availability.
11.31. Examples of core indicators for sustainable development are provided in a joint publication by several international organizations.[^87] These indicators are organized in three dimensions, social, economic and environmental, as well as according to theme and sub-theme. Tables 11.1–11.3 present energy indicators organized according to these three dimensions.[^88] Most of them can be derived from the data items presented in chapter V. However, for some of them, additional information needs to be collected/compiled (e.g., persons and/or freight tonnage transported times distance travelled, floor area, etc.).
11.32. There is a growing interest in energy efficiency indicators, and work is being carried out (most notably by the International Energy Agency) to review current practices at the national level and provide guidance on concepts and methods. While the importance of these indicators is recognized, many require additional levels of detail than that presented in the list of data items in chapter VI and therefore not all are presented in this chapter.
11.33. It should be noted that the list of indicators presented in this chapter is not exhaustive. Countries are encouraged to develop the list of relevant indicators according to their policy concerns and data availability.
**Table 11.1 — Energy Indicators linked to the social dimension**
| Theme | Sub-theme | Energy Indicator | Components |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Equity | Accessibility (SOC1) | Share of households (or population) without electricity or commercial energy, or heavily dependent on non-commercial energy | •• Households (or population) without electricity or commercial energy, or heavily dependent on noncommercial energy
•• Total number of households or population |
| Equity | Affordability (SOC2) | Share of household income spent on fuel and electricity | •• Household income spent on fuel and electricity
•• Household income (total and poorest 20 per cent of population) |
| Equity | Disparities (SOC3) | Household energy use for each income group and corresponding fuel mix | •• Energy use per household for each income group (quintiles)
•• Household income for each income group (quintiles)
•• Corresponding fuel mix for each income group (quintiles) |
| Health | Safety (SOC4) | Accident fatalities per unit of energy produced by fuel chain | •• Annual fatalities by fuel chain
•• Annual energy produced |
**Table 11.2 — Energy Indicators linked to the economic dimension**
| Theme | Sub-theme | Energy Indicator | Components |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Use and production patterns | Overall use (ECO1) | Energy use per capita | •• Energy use (total primary energy supply, total final consumption and electricity use)
•• Total population |
| Use and production patterns | Overall productivity (ECO2) | Energy use per unit of GDP | •• Energy use (total primary energy supply, total final consumption and electricity use)
•• GDP |
| Use and production patterns | Supply efficiency (ECO3) | Efficiency of energy conversion and distribution | •• Losses in transformation systems, including losses in electricity generation, transmission and distribution |
| Use and production patterns | Production (ECO4) | Reserves-to-production ratio | •• Proven recoverable reserves
•• Total energy production |
| Use and production patterns | Production (ECO5) | Resources-to-production ratio | •• Total estimated resources
•• Total energy production |
| Use and production patterns | End use (ECO6) | Industrial energy intensities | •• Energy use in industrial sector and by manufacturing branch
•• Corresponding value added |
| Use and production patterns | End use (ECO7) | Agricultural energy intensities | •• Energy use in agricultural sector
•• Corresponding value added |
| Use and production patterns | End use (ECO8) | Service/commercial energy intensities | •• Energy use in service/commercial sector
•• Corresponding value added |
| Use and production patterns | End use (ECO9) | Household energy intensities | •• Energy use in households and by key end use
•• Number of households, floor area, persons per household, appliance ownership |
| Use and production patterns | End use (ECO10) | Transport energy intensities | •• Energy use in passenger travel and freight sectors and by mode
•• Passenger-km travel and metric ton-km freight and by mode |
| Use and production patterns | Diversification (fuel mix) (ECO11) | Fuel shares in energy and electricity | •• Primary energy supply and final consumption, electricity generation and generating capacity by fuel type
•• Total primary energy supply, total final consumption, total electricity generation and total generating capacity |
| Use and production patterns | Diversification (fuel mix) (ECO12) | Non-carbon energy share in energy and electricity | •• Primary supply, electricity generation and generating capacity by non-carbon energy
•• Total primary energy supply, total electricity generation and total generating capacity |
| Use and production patterns | Diversification (fuel mix) (ECO13) | Renewable energy share in energy and electricity | •• Primary energy supply, final consumption and electricity generation and generating capacity by renewable energy
•• Total primary energy supply, total final consumption, total electricity generation and total generating capacity |
| Security | Prices (ECO14) | End-use energy prices by fuel and by sector | •• Energy prices (with and without tax/subsidy) |
| Security | Imports (ECO15) | Net energy import dependency | •• Energy imports
•• Total primary energy supply |
| Security | Strategic fuel stocks (ECO16) | Stocks of critical fuels per corresponding fuel consumption | •• Stocks of critical fuel (e.g., oil, gas, etc.)
•• Critical fuel consumption |
**Table 11.3 — Energy Indicators linked to the environmental dimension**
| Theme | Sub-theme | Energy Indicator | Components |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Atmosphere | Climate change (ENV1) | GHG emissions from energy production and use per capita and per unit of GDP | •• GHG emissions from energy production and use
•• Population and GDP |
| Atmosphere | Air quality (ENV2) | Ambient concentrations of air pollutants in urban areas | •• Concentrations of pollutants in air |
| Atmosphere | Air quality (ENV3) | Air pollutant emissions from energy systems | •• Air pollutant emissions |
| Water | Water quality (ENV4) | Contaminant discharges in liquid effluents from energy systems, including oil discharges | •• Contaminant discharges in liquid effluents |
| Land | Soil quality (ENV5) | Soil area where acidification exceeds critical load | •• Affected soil area
•• Critical load |
| Land | Forest (ENV6) | Rate of deforestation attributed to energy use | •• Forest area at two different times
•• Biomass utilization |
| Land | Solid waste generation and management (ENV7) | Ratio of solid waste generation to units of energy produced | •• Amount of solid waste
•• Energy produced |
| Land | Solid waste generation and management (ENV8) | Ratio of solid waste properly disposed of to total generated solid waste | •• Amount of solid waste properly disposed of
•• Total amount of solid waste |
| Land | Solid waste generation and management (ENV9) | Ratio of solid radioactive waste to units of energy produced | •• Amount of radioactive waste (cumulative for a selected period of time)
•• Energy produced |
| Land | Solid waste generation and management (ENV10) | Ratio of solid radioactive waste awaiting disposal to total generated solid radioactive waste | •• Amount of radioactive waste awaiting disposal
•• Total volume of radioactive waste |
## D. Greenhouse gas emissions
11.34. The availability of good, reliable and timely basic energy statistics and energy balances is fundamental for the estimation of GHG emissions and to address the global concerns for climate change. Basic energy statistics and energy balances are the main sources of data for the calculation of energy-related GHG emissions, as the IPCC Guidelines are based on the same conceptual framework. Countries are encouraged to make additional efforts to verify the compiled data and make any necessary adjustments to ensure that the calculated emissions are internationally comparable.
### 1. Climate change and GHG emissions
11.35. Human interference with the climate system, driven by the so-called "greenhouse effect", started being acknowledged as a global problem in 1979, at the First World Climate Conference. Ten years later, in 1988, the IPCC was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), with a
mission to provide a clear scientific view of the knowledge in climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic impacts.
11.36. The latest available scientific assessment of climate change from IPCC is provided in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), published in 2013. The report underlines that "warming of the climate system is unequivocal" and that "it is extremely likely that more than half of the observed increase in global average surface temperature from 1951 to 2010 was caused by the anthropogenic increase in greenhouse gas concentrations and other anthropogenic forcings together." The AR5 not only corroborated, but reinforced the findings of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), published in 2007. These assessments are consistent with ongoing climate observations reported by WMO. For the future, IPCC AR5 emphasizes that "continued emissions of GHGs will cause further warming and changes in all components of the climate system", and that "limiting climate change will require substantial and sustained reductions of greenhouse gas emissions."
11.37. The international community responded to the growing concerns about climate change by putting in place three key international treaties: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol to UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement under UNFCCC. Reporting on GHG emissions, including emissions from the energy sector, is a key obligation of the Parties to these treaties.
### 2. IPCC guidelines for estimating GHG emissions
11.38. An important function of IPCC is to provide methodological guidance on the estimation of national GHG emissions as part of the preparation of national GHG inventories. The first consolidated and extensive guidance on the estimation of GHG emissions was issued by IPCC in 1995, and revised and published as the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC 1997). Later, it was followed by the Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC 2000) and the Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC 2003).
11.39. The 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories were prepared at the invitation of UNFCCC. According to decision 24/CP.19 of the Conference of the Parties to UNFCCC (Warsaw, Poland, 11–23 November 2013), Annex I Parties to UNFCCC shall use the 2006 IPCC Guidelines in their national GHG inventory submissions from 2015. While there is no formal decision on the use of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines by non-Annex I Parties to date, some developing countries have started using the Guidelines in preparing national submissions on climate change. It is likely that more and more developing countries will start using the 2006 IPCC Guidelines in the near future.
11.40. The IPCC Guidelines address emissions of direct and indirect GHGs. The direct GHGs covered by the Guidelines are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and some others. The indirect GHGs considered in the Guidelines are nitrogen oxides (NOX), ammonia (NH3), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), carbon monoxide (CO) and sulphur dioxide (SO2).
11.41. The methods for estimating GHG emissions in the IPCC Guidelines are structured into a three-tier sectoral approach and a reference approach. These methods are briefly described in box 11.1.
> **Box 11.1**
> **Methods for the estimation of GHG emissions from fossil fuel combustion**
>
> **Sectoral approach**
>
> *Tier 1 method*
> The Tier 1 method is used to estimate emissions from all sources of combustion on the basis of the quantities of fuel combusted (usually taken from national energy statistics) and average (default) emission factors. This method is fairly accurate for CO2 emissions, but much less so for non-CO2 gases because emission factors for these gases may depend considerably on the combustion technology and operating conditions.
>
> *Tier 2 method*
> In the Tier 2 method for energy, emissions from combustion are estimated from similar fuel statistics as in the Tier 1 method, but country-specific emission factors are used instead of the Tier 1 defaults. Since available country-specific emission factors might differ for different fuels, combustion technologies or individual plants, activity data could be further disaggregated to properly reflect such disaggregated sources. Tier 2 estimates can be more accurate than Tier 1 estimates but require more data.
>
> *Tier 3 method*
> In the Tier 3 method for energy, either detailed emission models or measurements and data at individual plant level are used where appropriate. Properly applied, the Tier 3 method should provide better estimates, especially for non-CO2 emissions, though at the cost of more extensive data requirements and greater estimation efforts.
>
> **Reference approach**
> The reference approach, which is applied to CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, can be used as an independent check of the sectoral approach and as a first-order estimate of national GHG emissions. This is a ''top-down" approach assuming that all carbon coming into a national economy is either released into the atmosphere in the form of a greenhouse gas, or diverted (e.g., into increases of fuel stocks). The reference approach methodology is implemented in 5 steps:
> Step 1: Estimate apparent fuel consumption in original units
> Step 2: Convert to a common energy unit
> Step 3: Multiply by carbon content to compute the total carbon
> Step 4: Compute the excluded carbon
> Step 5: Correct for unoxidised carbon and convert to CO2 emissions
> The reference approach requires statistics on the production of fuels, on their external trade, as well as on changes in their stocks. It also requires some data on the consumption of fuels used for non-energy purposes.
### 3. Energy emissions and energy statistics
11.42. The "energy sector" in the IPCC definition includes exploration and exploitation of primary energy sources, conversion of primary energy sources into more useable energy forms in refineries and power plants, transmission and distribution of fuels, and the use of fuels in stationary and mobile applications. In terms of emission sources, the two major categories are distinguished:
(a) Emissions from fuel combustion (which are further disaggregated into the subcategories of energy industries, manufacturing industries and construction, transport, other sectors, and non-specified);
(b) Fugitive emissions, which are intentional or unintentional releases of gases during the production, processing, transmission, storage and use of fuels (further disaggregated into emissions from solid fuels (such as methane emissions from coal mining) and emissions from oil and natural gas).
11.43. The energy sector is the major source of GHG emissions. According to the IPCC AR5, around 70 per cent of global GHG emissions in 2010 related to energy supply and use, with CO2 from fuel combustion accounting for a major part. Therefore, it is important, even critical, to accurately estimate energy-related emissions and CO2 emissions, in particular.
11.44. Estimates are normally done at the level of individual emission sources that may correspond to a physical facility (e.g. a power plant) or to an industrial or economic group (e.g. cement production). These estimates are then summed up to obtain sectoral and national totals by individual gases, as well as the total of all gases calculated as a weighted average in terms of the so-called CO2-equivalent. The number of individual source categories may vary depending on data availability, the organizational and methodological frameworks of the assessment, and the resources available. For each individual source category, CO2 emissions are often estimated using an equation of the type shown below:
Emissionsfuel = FuelCombustedfuel x EmissionFactorfuel, tech
where Emissionsfuel are CO2 emissions by type of fuel (for a given source category), FuelCombustedfuel is the quantity of fuel combusted, and EmissionFactorfuel, tech is the CO2 emission factor by type of fuel and combustion technology used. Sometimes a carbon oxidation factor is added to this equation. While the equation is simple, estimating values for the amount of fuel combusted and selecting emission factors consistent with the definitions of the IPCC emission categories may be difficult.
11.45. Regardless of the tier used, consumption of fuels by fuel/product type is the very first basic step in the estimation of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion. If this basic step is not done properly, the subsequent steps cannot result in an accurate estimate. Data on the production and consumption of fuels and energy products are part of national energy statistics, normally in the form of national energy balances. It is therefore unequivocal that the quality of GHG estimates depends critically on the quality of national energy statistics. This dependence is fully recognized by the IPCC Guidelines, which encourage the use of fuel statistics collected by official national bodies, as this usually provides the most appropriate and accessible data.
11.46. If national data sources are unavailable or have gaps, IPCC suggests using data from international organizations (based normally on national submissions from countries). The two main sources of international energy statistics are the UNSD and IEA. Both collect data from the national administrations of their member countries through questionnaires (thus collecting "official data"), and they exchange data to ensure consistency and prevent duplication of efforts by reporting countries.
11.47. Estimating non-CO2 emissions from fuel combustion normally requires more specific methods than for CO2 emissions and more detailed information, such as the characteristics of fuel composition, combustion conditions, combustion technologies and emission control methods. Specific methods and data are also used for estimating fugitive CO2 and non-CO2 emissions. Such methods and associated data requirements can be found in the corresponding sections of the IPCC Guidelines. It is quite clear also in the Guidelines that for these emissions national energy statistics are indispensable for obtaining a solid emissions estimate.
11.48. A number of references related to GHG emission estimates are provided in the bibliography to this publication.
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[^82]: More information on SEEA-Energy is available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/seeae
[^83]: Stocks should be understood here in the SEEA sense, covering mineral and energy resources, while in IRES the term would be used for energy products, referring to the given quantity of each resource or product at a given point in time.
[^84]: SNA 2008, paras. 4.10-4.14.
[^85]: See SEEA-Energy chapter 7. It should be noted though that the term "total supply" is also defined and used differently in other chapters of SEEA-Energy.
[^86]: For more details, see chapter VIII of this publication.
[^87]: Energy Indicators for Sustainable Development: Guidelines and Methodologies, IAEA, UNDESA, IEA, Eurostat, EEA (Vienna, 2005).
[^88]: Since this publication precedes the work on IRES, the terminology used for the data items is not always compliant with IRES.