=== ires-2018-page-014.pdf === 1 Chapter I Introduction 1.1. Energy is fundamental for socio-economic development. The availability of and access to energy and energy sources are particularly essential to poverty reduction and fur- ther improvements in standards of living.1 At the same time, with the constantly increasing 1 See, for example, Johannesburg demand for energy, there are growing concerns about the sustainability and reliability of Plan of Implementation (JPOI), current production and consumption patterns and the impact of the use of fossil fuel on the paragraph 9(g). Available from www.un.org/esa/sustdev environment. /documents/WSSD_POI_PD /English/WSSD_PlanImpl.pdf. 1.2. Under these circumstances reliable and timely monitoring of the supply and use of energy becomes indispensable for sound decision-making. However, such monitoring is pos- sible only if high-quality energy statistics are systematically compiled and effectively dissemi- nated. This, in turn, requires the availability of internationally agreed standards and other necessary guidance to ensure cross-country data comparability and the existence of adequate mechanisms for data dissemination to policymakers, both at national and international lev- els, as well as to society in general. In this context, an overarching goal of the International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) is to provide such standards and guidance to national compilers covering relevant concepts and definitions, classifications, data sources, data compilation methods, institutional arrangements, data quality assurance, metadata and dissemination policies. 1.3. The target audience. IRES is a multipurpose document intended to address the needs of various user groups. Its target audience, which is quite diverse, comprises: (a) Compilers of national energy statistics, irrespective of whether they are located in national statistical offices, energy ministries (agencies), other governmental institutions or other agencies, who, by the application of the provided recom- mendations, can collectively strengthen national programmes of energy statistics as an integral part of official statistics and produce data that meet the challenges of our time; (b) Compilers of other statistics who will have in IRES an authoritative source of information on internationally agreed standards with respect to energy statistics and on which basis the cooperation with energy statisticians should be pursued in order to improve the overall quality of official statistics; (c) Policymakers whom IRES will help to better assess the strategic importance of energy statistics, the complexity of the issues energy statistics face and to appreci- ate the need for allocation of the necessary resources for producing such statistics; (d) International and regional organizations dealing with energy-related issues, which will appreciate IRES as the reference document of global importance on which they can base their work; (e) Research institutions and energy analysts that might use IRES to better assess the quality of available data and provide valuable feedback to energy statistics compilers; and;  === ires-2018-page-015.pdf === 2 International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) (f ) The general public, which will find in IRES a wealth of information essential for better understanding energy statistics and for formulating sound judgements regarding various energy policy issues. A. Background 1.4. Due to the critical role energy plays in socio-economic development, the availability of high-quality energy statistics has always been a matter of concern for the statistical com- munity. Since its inception the United Nations Statistical Commission has discussed issues relevant to energy statistics as part of economic statistics. In the aftermath of the energy crisis of the early 1970s, the Commission put energy statistics on its agenda as a separate item and requested a special report on energy statistics to be prepared and presented to it for discussion. 1.5. Accordingly, the report of the United Nations Secretary-General was prepared and 2 Towards a System of Integrated submitted to the Commission at its nineteenth session in 1976.2 The Commission welcomed Energy Statistics, Report of the the report and agreed that the development of a system of integrated energy statistics should Secretary-General to the nine- have high priority in the Commission’s programme of work. It agreed on the use of energy teenth session of the Statistical Commission, E/CN.3/476, balances as the key instrument in the coordination of work on energy statistics and the pro- 15 March 1976. vision of data in a suitable form for understanding and analysing the role of energy in the economy. The Commission also recommended the preparation of a standard international classification for energy statistics as part of the global system of integrated energy statistics and considered such a classification an essential element for the further development and harmonization of energy statistics at the international level. 1.6. Following the Commission’s recommendations, the United Nations Statistics Divi- sion (UNSD) prepared a detailed report on basic concepts and methods relevant to energy sta- tistics. The Commission, at its twentieth session in 1979, appreciated the report and decided that it should be made available for circulation to national and international statistical offices, 3 Concepts And Methods In Energy as well as to other relevant agencies. In response to this decision, UNSD issued in 1982 the Statistics, With Special Reference Concepts and Methods in Energy Statistics, with Special Reference to Energy Accounts and Bal- To Energy Accounts And Balances: ances: A Technical Report.3 At its twenty-fourth session in 1987, the Commission again dis- A Technical Report, Studies in cussed energy statistics and recommended that a handbook on conversion factors and units Methods, Series F, No. 29, United of measurement for use in energy statistics be published as well. Implementing this recom- Nations, New York, 1982. mendation, UNSD issued later in 1987 another technical report entitled Energy Statistics: Definitions, Units of Measure and Conversion Factors.4 These two documents have played a major role in the development of energy statistics both at the national and international levels. 1.7. As countries were gaining experience with the compilation of energy statistics, and 4 Energy Statistics: Definitions, various regions developed specific data needs, it became necessary to produce additional guid- Units of Measure and Conversion Factors, Studies in Methods, ance. In 1991, UNSD published Energy Statistics: A Manual for Developing Countries,5 and in Series F, No. 44, United Nations, 2004 the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Statistical Office of the European Com- New York, 1987. munities (Eurostat) published their Energy Statistics Manual 6 to assist member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European 5 Union (EU) in compiling their joint energy statistics questionnaire and to provide related Energy Statistics: A Manual for guidance. Both manuals were welcome complements to the earlier United Nations publica- Developing Countries, Studies in Methods, Series F, No. 56, United tions. The OECD/IEA/Eurostat manual contains the most recent background information Nations, New York, 1991. and clarifications of some difficult conceptual issues. 1.8. In view of mounting evidence that energy statistics still have serious shortcomings in terms of data availability and international comparability, the Commission at its thirty- sixth session in 2005 undertook a programme review based on a report prepared by Statistics 6 Energy Statistics Manual, OECD/ Norway (see E/CN.3/2005/3). During its deliberations, the Commission recognized the need IEA/EUROSTAT, Paris, 2004. for developing energy statistics as part of official statistics and for revising the existing recom- mendations for energy statistics.  === ires-2018-page-016.pdf === Introduction 3 1.9. As part of the follow-up actions to the Commission’s decisions, UNSD convened an ad hoc expert group on energy statistics (New York, 23–25 May 2005), which recommended that further work on energy statistics should be carried out by two complementary working groups—a city group and an inter-secretariat working group. The city group’s task was to con- tribute to the development of improved methods and international standards for national offi- cial energy statistics, and the inter-secretariat working group was requested to enhance inter- agency coordination, particularly in the harmonization of the definitions of energy products. The detailed terms of reference of both groups were approved by the Commission’s Bureau.7 7 See Report of the Secretary-General on Energy Statistics to the thirty- 1.10. The Commission, at its thirty-seventh session in 2006, commended the progress seventh session of the Commission, made and supported the establishment and mandate of the Oslo Group on Energy Statistics, E/CN.3/2006/10. convened by Statistics Norway, and the Intersecretariat Working Group on Energy Statistics (InterEnerStat), convened by IEA,8 and requested proper coordination mechanisms between them. The present publication is the result of a close cooperation between UNSD, the Oslo Group on Energy Statistics and InterEnerStat. While the Oslo Group on Energy Statistics 8 The IEA undertook an initiative concentrated on the development of an overall conceptual framework for IRES, as well as to organize a group consisting of data compilation and dissemination strategies, InterEnerStat focused on the harmonization various regional and special- of definitions of energy products and energy flows (see chapters III and V for details.). ized agencies active in energy statistics in 2004. Such a group, 1.11. Parallel with IRES, the System of Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA), includ- known as InterEnerStat, was ing SEEA-Energy, was prepared. These forthcoming publications will provide guidance for established in 2005 and acts as the Intersecretariat Work- environmental and energy accounts consisting of agreed concepts, definitions, classifica- ing Group on Energy Statistics tions and inter-related tables and accounts. The SEEA-Energy accounting standards will be reporting to the Commission. developed on the basis of IRES (e.g., using data items provided in IRES, its classification of energy products and definition of energy flows). Thus, IRES and SEEA-Energy are viewed as two complementary, coordinated documents, and the relationship between them is further elaborated in chapter XI. 1.12. The present document, adopted as a statistical standard by the Commission at its forty-second session in February 2011, provides the internationally agreed standard for energy statistics. B. Purpose of the international recommendations for energy statistics 1.13. The main purpose of IRES is to strengthen energy statistics as part of official statistics by providing recommendations on concepts and definitions, classifications, data sources, data compilation methods, institutional arrangements, approaches to data quality assessment, metadata and dissemination policies. Developing energy statistics in compliance with IRES will make these statistics more consistent with other fields of economic statistics, such as standard international classifications of activities and products,9 as well as with the recom- 9 This includes the International mendations for other economic statistics (e.g., the International Recommendations for Indus- Standard Industrial Classification trial Statistics, United Nations (2009b)). of All Economic Activities (ISIC), the Central Product Classification (CPC) and the Harmonized Com- 1.14. In addition, IRES will serve as a reference document in support of the maintenance modity Description and Coding and development of national energy statistics programmes. It will provide a common yet flex- System (HS). ible framework for the collection, compilation, analysis and dissemination of energy statistics that meet the demands of the user community and are policy-relevant, timely, reliable and internationally comparable. This framework can be utilized by all countries, irrespective of the level of development of their statistical systems, as the basis for further improving existing energy statistics programmes or establishing such programmes.  === ires-2018-page-017.pdf === 4 International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) 1.15. While all countries are expected to comply with IRES definitions and classifications to the extent possible and practical, to follow the recommendations regarding data collection and compilation, to maintain the highest possible data quality and to follow data dissemin­ ation principles, they have flexibility in defining the scope of their own energy statistics pro- grammes, developing their data collection strategies and establishing appropriate institutional arrangements that reflect country policy, circumstances, and resource availability. 10 The Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics were adopted at 1.16. Although there is no internationally accepted definition of the term official statistics, the Special Session of the United it is widely used in the statistical community. In international practice, a particular body of Nations Statistical Commission, statistics is usually referred to as official statistics if it follows the United Nations Fundamen- 11-15 April 1994. See Official tal Principles of Official Statistics10 (see box 1.1) and is issued by an institution nationally or Records of the Economic and internationally designated in this field. One of the key objectives of the Principles is to stress Social Council, Special session, Supplement No. 9 that high quality must be an indispensable feature of official statistics. Quality of energy (E/CN.3/1994/18). statistics is covered in chapter IX and builds on the experience of countries and international organizations in this area. Box 1.1 11 Although the original text of the The United Nations Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics11 United Nations Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics Principle 1. Official statistics provide an indispensable element in the information system of a makes reference to “official democratic society, serving the Government, the economy and the public with data about the statistical agencies” only, in the economic, demographic, social and environmental situation. To this end, official statistics that meet context of energy statistics it the test of practical utility are to be compiled and made available on an impartial basis by official should be understood to include statistical agencies to honour citizens’ entitlement to public information. national energy agencies/institu- Principle 2. To retain trust in official statistics, the statistical agencies need to decide according tions involved in the collection, to strictly professional considerations, including scientific principles and professional ethics, on the compilation or dissemination of methods and procedures for the collection, processing, storage and presentation of statistical data. energy statistics. Principle 3. To facilitate a correct interpretation of the data, the statistical agencies are to present information according to scientific standards on the sources, methods and procedures of the statistics. Principle 4. The statistical agencies are entitled to comment on erroneous interpretation and misuse of statistics. Principle 5. Data for statistical purposes may be drawn from all types of sources, be they statistical surveys or administrative records. Statistical agencies are to choose the source with regard to quality, timeliness, costs and the burden on respondents. Principle 6. Individual data collected by statistical agencies for statistical compilation, whether they refer to natural or legal persons, are to be strictly confidential and used exclusively for statistical purposes. Principle 7. The laws, regulations and measures under which the statistical systems operate are to be made public. Principle 8. Coordination among statistical agencies within countries is essential to achieve consistency and efficiency in the statistical system. Principle 9. The use by statistical agencies in each country of international concepts, classifications and methods promotes the consistency and efficiency of statistical systems at all official levels. Principle 10. Bilateral and multilateral cooperation in statistics contributes to the improvement of systems of official statistics in all countries. 1.17. Importance of developing energy statistics as official statistics. Energy is a necessary input in all human activities and is critically important for socio-economic development. Therefore, it is imperative that energy statistics of the highest quality possible are produced. To ensure that such quality is attained, countries are encouraged to take steps to advance  === ires-2018-page-018.pdf === Introduction 5 from the collection of selected data items used primarily for internal purposes by various spe- cialized energy agencies to the establishment of an integrated system of multipurpose energy statistics as a part of their official statistics in the context of the United Nations Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics and on the basis of appropriate institutional arrangements. It is recognized that in many countries and regions such integrated systems have been estab- lished12 and efforts are being made to further improve them, while a significant number of 12 One of the most recent examples other countries are at the initial stages of this process. of such efforts is the adoption of the EU directive on energy statis- 1.18. Developing energy statistics as official statistics will be beneficial in a number of tics, Regulation (EC) No. 1099/2008 ways, including: (i) strengthening the legal basis in order to guarantee confidentiality of data of the European Parliament and of providers and protection against data misuse; (ii) improving international comparability by the Council of 22 October 2008 on energy statistics. promoting the implementation of international standards and concepts; and (iii) fostering transparency in the compilation and dissemination of statistics. 1.19. Actions to be taken to strengthen energy statistics as official statistics. Developing energy statistics as part of countries’ official statistics is a long-term goal that requires careful planning for development and implementation. Actions leading towards this goal should be taken both at the international and national levels. 1.20. At the international level, the strengthening of official energy statistics would be achieved by developing the current international recommendations for energy statistics and carrying out the respective implementation programmes. The implementation programme includes, for instance, the preparation of the Energy Statistics Compilers Manual (ESCM) and other technical reports to ensure sharing of good practices and improvements in data quality. It is recommended that international organizations play an active role in IRES implementation and assist countries in developing energy statistics work programmes as part of their national official statistics through, for example, the preparation of training materials and organizing regular training programmes, including regional workshops, and assisting countries in the sharing of expertise gained in this process. 1.21. At the national level, further improvements in the legal framework and streamlining of the institutional arrangements are needed. Certain issues, such as confidentiality, can be a challenge, since there may be strong tendencies towards market concentration and market liberalization on the supply side for specific energy products, creating a conflict between the confidentiality requirement and demand for data. Some guidance in this respect is provided in Chapters VII and X. 1.22. More efforts are required at the national level to raise the user confidence in energy statistics, including making the processes of data compilation and dissemination fully trans- parent. It is recommended that official energy statistics be treated as a public good and the agencies responsible for their dissemination ensure that the public has convenient access to those statistics. 1.23. Specific needs addressed in the current version. The international recommendations 13 For example, in the 1960s for energy statistics have not been reviewed as a whole since the 1980s and need to be revised there was almost no electricity and updated to: produced from nuclear energy; more recently wind and solar (a) Take into account and provide recommendations on the statistical treatment of energy have started to draw new developments in energy production and consumption. Examples include attention; biofuels have been quickly increasing in relevance the increased complexity of energy markets (including their liberalization), the and the future might see the appearance of new energy sources and technologies13 and the need for data to fast development of hydrogen assess the sustainability and efficiency of energy supply and consumption, which and fuel cells. As a consequence, were not sufficiently taken into account in the previous recommendations; there is an obvious need for statistics and statisticians to fol- (b) Provide recommendations on topics not explicitly addressed in existing United low, if not to anticipate the fast Nations publications, such as data compilation strategies, data quality, metadata evolution of the energy market.  === ires-2018-page-019.pdf === 6 International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) and data dissemination, as well as on the institutional arrangements needed for effective compilation of official energy statistics; (c) Provide definitions of data items recommended for collection, identify a range of appropriate data sources and data compilation methods in order to assist coun- tries in the formulation of their data compilation strategies in the context of the increased complexity of energy markets in rapidly globalizing economies and heightened confidentiality concerns; (d) Promote an integrated approach to energy statistics, in particular to improve harmonization with other standard international classifications of activities and products, as well as to take into account the new recommendations in related areas (e.g., in the International Recommendations for Industrial Statistics, 2008, the forthcoming SEEA-Energy and the United Nations Framework Classification for Energy and Mineral Resources); (e) Recognize that, depending on a country’s circumstances, the responsibility for the compilation and dissemination of official energy statistics may be vested in national statistical offices, ministries of energy or other specialized agencies. Regardless of where this responsibility lies, the agency contributing to official energy statistics should be committed to adhering to the statistical standards of quality; (f ) Promote uniformity in the international reporting of energy data required for dealing with global challenges such as sustainable development, energy security or climate change, and for meeting other international needs, including improve- ment in coverage and quality of the United Nations energy statistics database and energy databases of other international and regional organizations. C. Users and uses of energy statistics 1.24. Energy statistics are a specialized field of statistics whose scope has been evolving over time and broadly covers (i) extraction, production, transformation, distribution, stor- age, trade and final consumption of energy products and (ii) the main characteristics and activities of the energy industries (see chapter II for details). Energy statistics are seen as a multipurpose body of data. Therefore, in the preparation of international recommendations for these statistics the needs of the various user groups were taken into account. The main user groups and their needs are briefly described below. 1.25. Energy policy makers. Policy makers use energy statistics for the formulation of energy strategies and for monitoring their implementation. In this context, energy statistics are required, inter alia, for the following: (a) Formulation of energy policies and monitoring their impact on the economy. The formulation of energy policies and the monitoring of their impact on the economy are critically important for countries, as energy availability directly affects production, imports, exports and investment, all of which have a signifi- cant impact on a country’s economy. Detailed and high-quality energy statistics provide policy makers with the information needed to make informed decisions and evaluate possible trade-offs. For example, in the context of global price shocks in commodities, such as oil and gas, policy makers may want to monitor the impact of national subsidy programmes for those fuels. In other situations, poli- cies on whether certain energy products can be better used for food or used as fuel may be examined;  === ires-2018-page-020.pdf === Introduction 7 (b) Monitoring of national energy security. For the assessment of national energy security, detailed statistics on energy supply, transformation, demand and stock levels are indispensable. Data on production, trade, consumption, stock levels and stock changes are politically sensitive, as problems with energy supply may be perceived as a threat to national independence, especially if national energy sources do not meet energy demand; (c) Planning of energy industries’ development and promotion of ­energy-conserving technological processes. A basic prerequisite for such strategic planning is the availability of systematic and detailed data covering the range of primary and secondary energy products, as well as their flow from production to final con- sumption. This would allow for assessment of the economic efficiency of various energy production processes and energy consumption, and for building econo- metric models for forecasting and planning future investments in the various energy industries and in energy conserving technological processes; (d) Environmental policy, especially greenhouse gas emission inventories, and environmental statistics. There is a growing concern about the environmental effects caused by emissions of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants from the use of energy, especially from the use of fossil fuels. Enabling energy statistics to meet the demand from environment statistics, especially concerning the emission of greenhouse gases, must be one of the top priorities. 1.26. Business community. The availability of detailed energy statistics is critical for the business community in general and for energy industries in particular, for evaluating various business options, assessing opportunities for new investments and analysing the energy mar- ket. Basic energy statistics have to be relevant for those experts who follow energy markets, as in many countries changes in energy markets and energy prices will have a strong effect on the economic situation. 1.27. Compilers and users of national accounts. In most systems of official statistics, national accounts play a crucial role as they give the national picture of the economic situ- ation and trends, covering all production sectors, including energy, and all uses of goods and services. Basic economic statistics, including energy statistics, are needed to meet the demands of the national accounts. 1.28. Compilers of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Energy (SEEA-Energy). The SEEA-Energy expands the conventional national accounts to better describe the extraction of energy from the environment, the use and supply of energy products within the economy and the flows from the economy to the environment. Energy statistics are the basis for the compilation of the SEEA-Energy, which organizes and integrates them in a common framework together with economic statistics, thus providing additional information relevant to the formulation and monitoring of energy policy. 1.29. International organizations. As international organizations were tasked with moni- toring global developments, including those related to energy and the environment, they need energy statistics to carry out their activities. Therefore, international reporting obligations are an important factor to be taken into account in developing energy statistics. 1.30. General public. The general public benefits from the availability of timely energy statistics for evaluating the energy and environmental situation in order to make informed judgements about the various options for energy policy. For example, information on energy consumption, its costs, prices, and market trends will contribute to the public debate about efficiency, sustainability and the economy.  === ires-2018-page-021.pdf === 8 International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) D. IRES development process 1.31. The revision process included the preparation of an annotated outline of IRES for worldwide consultation with countries and international organizations on its scope and con- tent, the holding of an International Workshop on Energy Statistics (Mexico, 2–5 December 2008) to provide an opportunity for developing countries to express their concerns and discuss possible solutions, the preparation of the draft recommendations and their review by the fourth and fifth meetings of the Oslo Group, a worldwide consultation on the provisional draft of IRES, as well as review and endorsement of the draft IRES by the second meeting of the United Nations Expert Group on Energy Statistics (New York, 2–5 November 2010). 1.32. The Oslo Group, with Statistics Norway serving as its secretariat, and InterEnerStat, chaired by the IEA, were the key content providers to IRES in accordance with the mandates given to them by the Commission. The London Group and the United Nations Expert Group on International Economic and Social Classifications were consulted in the process as well. 1.33. UNSD coordinated and organized worldwide consultations, provided substantive inputs on various topics and was responsible for consolidating and editing various successive versions of the draft IRES. 1.34. Guiding principles for the development of IRES. The Oslo Group agreed on the following principles to guide the preparation of IRES: (a) The needs of major user groups should be considered as a starting point and be taken into account, to the maximum extent possible, to ensure that the data com- piled according to the new recommendations are policy relevant, meet the needs of the energy community (both producers and users) and provide a solid founda- tion for the integration of energy statistics into a broader accounting framework; (b) The development should be conducted in close consultation with both national statistical offices and national energy agencies, as well as with the relevant inter- national and supranational organizations; (c) While providing recommendations on data items and their definitions, care should be taken so that: (i) necessary data sources are generally available in coun- tries to compile such data; (ii) the collection of such data items does not create a significant additional reporting burden; and (iii) the collection procedures can be implemented by most countries to ensure improved cross-country comparability; (d) The development should be seen in the context of promoting an integrated approach in the national statistical system, which requires, to the extent pos- sible, the use of harmonized concepts and classifications and standardized data compilation methods in order to achieve maximum efficiency and minimize the reporting burden; (e) Additional guidance on more practical/technical matters to assist countries in the implementation of IRES should be provided in the forthcoming ESCM. Dur- ing the revision process, the Oslo Group will decide on what will be covered in ESCM and to what extent. E. Structure of IRES 1.35. The IRES is structured in accordance with its objectives and contains eleven chapters and three annexes. The content of each chapter is briefly described below.  === ires-2018-page-022.pdf === Introduction 9 1.36. Chapter I. Introduction. This chapter provides background information, formulates the objectives of IRES, describes its target audience and outlines its content. It is emphasized that the main objective of IRES is to provide a firm foundation for the long-term develop- ment of energy statistics as part of official statistics based on the United Nations Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics. The chapter stresses the importance of energy statistics for sound decision- and policymaking, and identifies major user groups and their needs. 1.37. Chapter II. Scope of energy statistics. The purpose of this chapter is to define the scope and coverage of energy statistics. The chapter recommends treating energy statistics as a complete system to understand energy stocks and flows, energy infrastructure, performance of the energy industries and the availability of energy resources. The scope of energy statistics is defined in terms of energy products, energy flows, the reference territory, energy industries, energy consumers, energy resources and reserves. 1.38. Chapter III. Standard International Energy Product Classification. This chapter introduces the Standard International Energy Product Classification (SIEC), which organ- izes the internationally agreed definitions of energy products into a hierarchical classifica- tion system, reflects the relationships between them and provides a coding system for use in data collection and data processing. The chapter describes the SIEC classification scheme and its relationships with the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System 2007 (HS 2007) and the Central Product Classification Version 2 (CPC Ver. 2). A supplementary characterization of SIEC products as primary and secondary products and renewable and non-renewable products is provided in annex A. 1.39. Chapter IV. Measurement units and conversion factors. This chapter describes physi- cal units of measurement for the different products, recommends common units of measure- ment, and provides recommendations on the calculation and reporting of calorific values. In the absence of specific calorific values, default calorific values are presented. 1.40. Chapter V. Energy flows. This chapter contains a general overview of the process through which energy products appear on national territory, and are traded and consumed within a country. It provides definitions of energy flows such as energy production, trans- formation, non-energy use, final energy consumption, etc. The chapter describes the main groups of economic units relevant to energy statistics (e.g., energy industries, other energy producers and energy consumers), and provides necessary information to facilitate the under- standing of the data items presented in chapter VI. 1.41. Chapter VI. Statistical units and data items. This chapter contains recommenda- tions on the statistical units (and their characteristics) and the reference list of data items for collection. The list covers: characteristics of statistical units; data items on energy stock and flows; data items on production and storage capacity; data items for the assessment of eco- nomic performance; and data items on reserves of mineral and energy resources. This chapter provides a basis for the subsequent chapters on data collection and compilation (chapter VII), as well as the construction of energy balances (chapter VIII). While chapter V provides gen- eral definitions of flows, chapter VI explains possible exceptions and details to be taken into account for specific products in the definition of particular data items. 1.42. Chapter VII. Data collection and compilation. This chapter reviews the different elements for the production of high-quality energy statistics. The importance and principles of an effective institutional and legal framework are emphasized and promoted. The chapter provides an overview of the data collection strategies and focuses on the main types of data sources (e.g., surveys, administrative data, etc.) and key elements of the data compilation methods. Details on more practical aspect of data collection/compilation, such as the estima- tion methods and imputation, are deferred to the ESCM.  === ires-2018-page-023.pdf === 10 International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) 1.43. Chapter VIII. Energy balances. This chapter describes the importance of energy balances for making informed policy decisions and their role in organizing energy statistics in a coherent system. It contains recommendations on the compilation of balances based on concepts, definitions, classifications and data items described in the previous chapters. The chapter covers the presentation of energy supply, transformation and consumption, as well as other flows in the format of an energy balance. 1.44. Chapter IX. Data quality assurance and metadata. This chapter describes the main dimensions of energy data quality and provides recommendations on how to set up a national energy data quality framework, including development and use of indicators of quality and data quality reporting. The importance of metadata availability for ensuring a high quality of energy statistics is stressed as well. 1.45. Chapter X. Dissemination. This chapter formulates recommendations on energy statistics dissemination mechanisms, addressing data confidentiality, data access, release schedules, data revisions, dissemination formats and reporting to international/regional organizations. 1.46. Chapter XI. Uses of basic energy statistics and balances. This chapter provides some examples of important uses of energy statistics and balances. The use of energy statistics and energy balances for the compilation of energy accounts of SEEA-Energy is discussed, including a brief elaboration of conceptual differences. This chapter also presents examples of energy indicators linked to the social, economic and environmental dimensions and to the compilation of statistics on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. 1.47. IRES contains two annexes that provide: (i) the characterization of SIEC products as primary and secondary products, as well as renewable and non-renewable products; and (ii) tables on conversion factors, calorific values and measurement units. A bibliography is also provided. F. Summary of recommendations 1.48. IRES contains numerous recommendations and encouragements on various issues relevant to the collection, compilation and dissemination of energy statistics. The table on the following pages is intended to assist the reader by highlighting the main recommenda- tions and encouragements. It should be noted, however, that, in many cases, the correct interpretation of a particular recommendation or encouragement requires familiarity with the full IRES text.  === ires-2018-page-024.pdf === Introduction 11 Table 1.1 Summary of the main recommendations and encouragements contained in IRES Para. Recommendations and encouragements Chapter I. Introduction 1.17 To ensure high quality in energy statistics, countries are encouraged to take steps to advance from the collection of selected data items used primarily for internal purposes by various specialized energy agencies to the establishment of an integrated system of multipurpose energy statistics as a part of their official statistics in the context of the United Nations Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics and on the basis of appropriate institutional arrangements. 1.20 It is recommended that international organizations play an active role in IRES implementation and assist countries in developing energy statistics work programmes as part of their national official statistics through, for example, the preparation of training materials and carrying out regular training pro- grammes, including organizing regional workshops and assisting countries in sharing expertise. 1.22 It is recommended that official energy statistics be treated as a public good and the agencies responsible for dissemination of official energy statistics ensure that the public has convenient access to these statistics. 1.49 The present recommendations should be implemented by countries in a way appropriate to their own circumstances, including identified user needs, resources, priorities and respondent burden. Chapter II. Scope of energy statistics 2.6 Even though data on energy resources and reserves are generally collected by specialized governmental agencies (e.g., geological institutes), which are assigned the responsibility of monitoring the depletion of energy resources, such data should be obtained and included in the energy data warehouse. 2.7 The energy data collection should be organized in close collaboration with other data collection activities carried out in a given country (e.g., with programmes of enterprise or establishment censuses and surveys based on the relevant recommendations adopted by the United Nations Statistical Com- mission) to avoid duplication of efforts and ensure overall coherence of official statistics. 2.9 It is recommended that energy products refer to products exclusively or mainly used as a source of energy. They include forms of energy suitable for direct use (e.g., electricity and heat) and energy products that release energy while undergoing some chemical or other process (including combustion). By convention, energy products also include peat, biomass and waste when and only when they are used for energy purposes. Chapter III. Standard International Energy Products Classification 3.1 Internationally agreed definitions of energy products and their classification should be promoted as a basic tool for energy statistics compilation and dis- semination both at national and international levels. Chapter IV. Measurement units and conversion factors 4.27 The only energy unit in the International System of Units is the joule, and it is usually used in energy statistics as a common unit, although other energy units are also applied (e.g., toe, GWh, Btu, calories, etc.). The use of the joule as a common unit is recommended. 4.28 It is recommended that national and international agencies in charge of energy statistics, and any other organizations that advise them or undertake work for them, always clearly define the measurement units, as well as the common units used for presentational purposes in various publications and in electronically disseminated data. The conversion factors and the methods used to convert original physical units into the chosen common unit or units should be described in energy statistics metadata and be readily accessible to users. In addition, it should be made clear whether energy units are defined on a gross or net calorific basis. 4.34 It is recommended that, when expressing the energy content of energy products in terms of a common energy unit, net calorific values (NCV) should be used in preference to gross calorific values (GCV). Where available, it is strongly encouraged to report both gross and net calorific values. 4.38 It is recommended that countries collect data in original units together with data on specific calorific values. Default calorific values should only be used as a last resort in the absence of specific values, acknowledging that this simplification will affect the precision of the published figures. 4.39 It is recommended that metadata be provided on the methods used in all calculations and conversions undertaken to arrive at the disseminated data, in order to ensure transparency and clarity, and to enable comparability. In particular, this would include the conversion factors between original and presented units, whether they are on a gross or net calorific basis, and any use of default values. 4.44 Since calorific values may change according to the type of flow, countries are encouraged to collect calorific values at least on production, imports and exports. 4.60 Due to the wide variability in composition in ash and moisture content of general animal and vegetal wastes across countries, it is recommended that these products be reported to international organizations in an energy unit (preferably TJ) rather than their natural units. 4.65 While no specific measurement unit is recommended for national data collection, certain units are recommended for data dissemination. If necessary, countries may use other units, as long as appropriate conversion factors are provided. For each main category of energy products, the recommended unit for dissemination is provided in table 4.4. 4.67 It is recommended that countries report to international organizations both physical quantities of fuels and their country-specific (and where necessary flow-specific) calorific values.  === ires-2018-page-025.pdf === 12 International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) Para. Recommendations and encouragements Chapter V. Energy Flows 5.9 It is recommended that countries follow the definitions of energy flows in their official energy statistics as closely as possible. Any deviations should be reflected in countries’ energy metadata. 5.23 It is recommended that energy industries be defined as consisting of economic units whose principal activity is primary energy production, transforma- tion of energy, or distribution of energy, with the additions described in para. 5.26. 5.24 It is recommended that the collection, compilation and dissemination of statistics describing the main characteristics and activities of energy industries be considered part of official energy statistics. 5.26 It is recommended that countries identify, as far as feasible and applicable, the energy industries listed in the left column of table 5.1. 5.77 It is recommended that countries, where “other energy producers” account for a significant part of total energy production, make efforts to obtain from them the detailed data and incorporate them in their official energy statistics, including in energy balances. 5.80 It is recommended that countries identify, as far as feasible and applicable, the groups of energy consumers as listed in table 5.3. Chapter VI. Statistical Units and Data Items 6.3 It is recommended that countries use the reference list of data items for selecting data items for use in their national energy statistics programmes, in accordance with their own circumstances, respondent load and available resources. It is further recommended that the data items be selected in a way to allow for an adequate assessment of a country’s energy situation, reflect main energy flows specific to the country and enable, as a minimum, the compila- tion of energy balances in an aggregated format. 6.5 Countries are encouraged to use analytical units as statistical units, as necessary and feasible, in order to improve the quality of their energy statistics. 6.9 In general, it is recommended that large enterprises engaged in many economic activities that belong to different industries be broken up into one or more establishments, provided that smaller and more homogeneous units can be identified for which data on energy production or other activities attrib- uted to energy industries may be meaningfully compiled. 6.21 The establishment is recommended as the statistical unit for energy statistics because it is the most detailed unit for which the range of data required is normally available. 6.75 For analytical purposes, countries are encouraged to compile information on the components of the different prices of energy products. 6.78 It is recommended that, in statistical questionnaires, countries refer to the specific names or descriptions of taxes as they exist in their national fiscal systems. 6.84 In order to maintain consistency with the valuation principles for output (production) of other international recommendations on business statistics and national accounts, it is recommended that countries compile the output of establishments at basic prices. However, in circumstances where it is not possible to segregate “taxes and subsidies on products” and “other taxes on production”, valuation of output at factor cost can serve as a second best alternative. Chapter VI. Data collection and compilation 7.5 It is recommended that national agencies responsible for the compilation and dissemination of energy statistics, whenever appropriate, actively partici- pate in the discussions on national statistical legislation or relevant administrative regulations in order to establish a solid foundation for high-quality and timely energy statistics, with a view to mandatory reporting, whenever appropriate, and adequate protection of confidentiality. 7.10 It is recommended that countries develop an appropriate interagency coordination mechanism which, while taking into account existing legal con- straints, would systematically monitor performance of the national system of energy statistics, motivate its members to actively participate in the system, develop recommendations focused on improving the system’s functioning, and have the authority to implement such recommendations. 7.13 It is recommended that countries consider the establishment of the institutional arrangements necessary to ensure the collection and compilation of high-quality energy statistics as a matter of high priority and periodically review their effectiveness. The national agency that has the overall responsibility for the compilation of energy statistics should periodically review the definitions, methods and the statistics themselves to ensure that they comply with relevant international recommendations and recognized best practices, are of high quality, and are available to users in a timely fashion. 7.18 It is recommended, as applicable, that at least the following three reporter groups be distinguished: energy industries, other energy producers and energy consumers. 7.29 Countries are encouraged to conduct higher frequency (infra-annual) collections on a regular basis within identified priority areas of energy statistics due to their critical importance for a timely assessment of a fast-changing energy situation. 7.33 Close collaboration between energy statisticians and compilers of industrial statistics, as well as statisticians responsible for conducting household, labour force and financial surveys, is of a paramount importance and should be fully encouraged and systematically promoted. 7.39 It is recommended that countries make efforts to establish a programme of sample surveys that would satisfy the needs of energy statistics in an inte- grated way, i.e., as part of an overall national sample survey programme of enterprises and households, to avoid duplication of work and minimize the response burden. 7.41 To ensure the regular conduct of energy surveys, it is recommended that the periodicity of such surveys be established from the very beginning. Countries are encouraged to ensure that the survey design is optimized, keeping in mind the desirable use and inferences from the expected results, while informa- tion not essential for the survey purposes should be avoided as much as possible.  === ires-2018-page-026.pdf === Introduction 13 Para. Recommendations and encouragements Chapter VII (continued) 7.47 It is recommended, as the best option, that the frame for every list-based enterprise survey for energy industries be derived from a single general-purpose statistical business register maintained by the statistical office, rather than from stand-alone registers for each individual survey. 7.48 For countries not maintaining a current up-to-date business register, it is recommended that the list of enterprises drawn from the latest economic census and amended as necessary, based on relevant information from other sources, be used as a sampling frame. 7.67 It is recommended that compilers of energy statistics use imputation as necessary, with the appropriate methods consistently applied. It is further recom- mended that these methods comply with the general requirements as set out in international recommendations for other domains of economic statistics, such as the International Recommendations for Industrial Statistics 2008. 7.68 As the application of estimation procedures is a complex undertaking, it is recommended that specialist expertise always be sought for this task. Chapter VIII. Energy balances 8.1 The energy balance should be as complete as possible so that all energy flows are, in principle, accounted for. It should be based firmly on the first law of thermodynamics, which states that the amount of energy within any closed system is fixed and can neither be increased nor diminished unless energy is brought into or sent out from that system. 8.5 It is recommended that countries collect data at a level of detail that allows for the compilation of a detailed energy balance, as presented in table 8.1. When such a level of detail is not available or practical, it is recommended that countries, at a minimum, follow the template of the aggregated energy balance presented in table 8.2. 8.9 (a) The energy balance is compiled with respect to a clearly defined reference period. In this respect, it is recommended that countries, as a minimum, compile and disseminate an energy balance on an annual basis. 8.9(h) All entries in the energy balance should be expressed in one energy unit (it is recommended that Joule is used for this purpose, although countries could use other energy units, such as toe, tce, etc.). The conversion between energy units should be through the application of appropriate conversion factors (see chapter IV) and the applied factors should be reported with the energy balance to make any conversion from physical units to Joules or other units transparent and comparable. 8.9(j) In the case of electricity generation from primary heat (nuclear, geothermal and concentrating solar), it is recommended that an estimate of the heat input be used based on an efficiency of 33 per cent for nuclear and concentrating solar, and 10 per cent for geothermal as a default, unless country- or case- specific information is available. 8.10 While the structuring of an energy balance depends on a country’s energy production and consumption patterns and the level of detail that the country requires, it is recommended that common approaches be followed to ensure international comparability and consistency (see section 8.C). 8.12 While different columns (except “total”) represent various energy products, they might be grouped and sequenced in a way that adds to the analytical value of the balance. In this connection, it is recommended that: (a) Groups of energy products be mutually exclusive and based on SIEC; (b) The column “total” follow the columns for individual energy products (or groups of products); (c) The column “total” be followed by supplementary columns containing additional subtotals such as “renewables”. The definition of such subtotals and any additional clarification on the column’s coverage should be provided in appropriate explanatory notes. 8.14 It is recommended that an energy balance contain three main blocks of rows as follows: (a) Top block—flows representing energy entering and leaving the national territory, as well as stock changes to provide information on the supply of energy on the national territory during the reference period; (b) Middle block—flows showing how energy is transformed, transferred, used by energy industries for own use and lost in distribution and transmission; (c) Bottom block—flows reflecting final energy consumption and non-energy use of energy products. 8.22 As countries may adopt different conventions for the calculation of the change in energy stocks, it is recommended that necessary clarification be provided in country metadata. Countries are encouraged to collect comprehensive data on stock changes from large companies, private or public, as a minimum. 8.29 It is recommended that countries show in their balances, to the extent possible and applicable, energy transformation by the categories of plants, as presented in para. 5.70 8.30 It is recommended that: (a) energy entering transformation processes (e.g., fuels into electricity generation and heat generation, crude oil into oil refineries for the production of oil products, or coal into coke ovens for the production of coke and coke oven gas) be shown with a negative sign to represent the input; and (b) energy that is an output of transformation activities be shown as a positive number. 8.35 It is recommended that final energy consumption be grouped into three main categories: (i) manufacturing, construction and non-fuel mining industries, (ii) transport and (iii) other, and further disaggregated according to countries’ needs (see chapter V for more detail). 8.36, Taking into account the needs of energy policy makers and to ensure cross country comparability of energy balances, it is recommended that, in their 8.40 energy balance, countries show final energy consumption disaggregated according to the groups shown in table 5.3. 8.37 In the energy balances, data for energy use for transport should be disaggregated by mode of transport as shown in table 5.4. 8.45 The reasons for a large statistical difference should be examined because this indicates that the input data are inaccurate and/or incomplete. 8.48 When only main aggregates have to be shown, it is recommended that the template presented in table 8.2 be used, as applicable, to ensure international comparability and assist in monitoring implementation of various international agreements and conventions.  === ires-2018-page-027.pdf === 14 International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) Para. Recommendations and encouragements Chapter VIII (continued) 8.51 It is recommended that accuracy requirements applicable to basic energy data used in the balance be clearly described in the energy statistics metadata of the country. 8.52 It is recommended that countries estimate missing data in order to maintain the integrity of the balance and follow the imputation methods and general principles established in other areas of statistics, as well as good practices applicable to energy statistics. 8.53 It is recommended that countries provide a summary of the performed reconciliation in the energy balance metadata to ensure the transparency of the energy balance preparation and to assist users in proper interpretation of the information contained therein and its relationship with other disseminated statistics. 8.54 It is recommended that the suitability of foreign merchandise trade statistics always be reviewed, and available data used to the maximum extent possible to avoid duplication of efforts and publication of contradictory figures. It is further recommended that energy and trade statisticians regularly review data collection procedures to ensure that the needs of energy statistics are met to the extent possible. 8.55 While countries may use various formats of commodity balances depending on their needs and circumstances, it is recommended that the format of the energy balance and all applicable concepts defined in IRES be consistently used in the compilation of a commodity balance to ensure data consistency. 8.59 It is recommended that commodity balances be constructed at the national level for every energy commodity in use, however minor, with certain com- modities aggregated for working purposes. Chapter IX. Data quality assurance and metadata 9.13 Countries are encouraged to develop their own national quality assurance frameworks based on the approaches described in chapter IX or other interna- tionally recognized approaches, taking into consideration their specific national circumstances. 9.15 It is recommended that if, while compiling a particular energy statistics dataset, countries are not in a position to meet the accuracy and timeliness requirements simultaneously, they produce provisional estimates, which would be available soon after the end of the reference period but would be based on less comprehensive data content. 9.20 Countries are encouraged to develop or identify a set of quality measures and indicators that can be used to describe, measure, assess, document and monitor over time the quality of their energy statistics outputs and make them available to users. 9.21 Countries are encouraged to select practical sets of quality measures and indicators that are most relevant to their specific outputs and can be used to describe and monitor the quality of the data over time. 9.27 Countries are encouraged to regularly issue quality reports as part of their metadata. 9.28 It is recommended that some form of quality review of energy statistics programmes be undertaken periodically, for example every four to five years or more frequently, if significant methodological or other changes in the data sources occur. 9.38 It is recommended that different levels of metadata detail be made available to users to meet the requirements of the various user groups. 9.41 The development of capacity in countries to disseminate national data and metadata using web technology and Statistical Data and Metadata Exchange (SDMX) standards such as cross domain concepts is recommended as a means to standardize and reduce the international reporting burden. 9.42 It is recommended that countries accord high priority to the development of metadata, to keeping them up-to-date, and to consider the dissemination of metadata to be an integral part of the dissemination of energy statistics. In consideration of the integrated approach to the compilation of economic statistics, it is also recommended that a coherent system and a structured approach to metadata across all areas of statistics be developed and adopted, focusing on improving their quantity and coverage. Chapter X. Dissemination 10.2 The dissemination policy should be user-oriented, reaching and serving all user groups, and provide quality information. While each user group has differ- ent needs and preferred data formats, the goal should be to reach all kinds of users rather than targeting specific audiences. Therefore, both publications and web sites should be designed as clearly as possible for the general public as well as for researchers and the media. 10.3 Countries are encouraged to work closely with the user community by conducting vigorous outreach campaigns, including building stable and produc- tive relationships with users and key stakeholders. 10.4 It is recommended that countries conduct user-satisfaction surveys with the periodicity established by the responsible national agency. 10.12 Countries are encouraged to develop their own statistical disclosure methods that best suit their specific circumstances. 10.15 It is recommended that countries implement the general rules on statistical confidentiality in such a way as to promote access to data while ensuring confidentiality, in accordance with the recommended criteria in para. 10.15. 10.16 It is recommended that countries make their energy data available on a calendar basis compatible with the practice adopted by the statistical authority of the compiling country in other areas of statistics, preferably according to the Gregorian calendar and consistent with the recommendations set out in this publication. For international comparability, countries that use the fiscal year should undertake efforts to report annual data according to the Gregorian calendar.  === ires-2018-page-028.pdf === Introduction 15 Para. Recommendations and encouragements Chapter X (continued) 10.17 It is recommended that countries announce in advance the precise dates on which various series of energy statistics will be released. This advance release schedule should be posted at the beginning of each year on the website of the national agency responsible for the dissemination of the official energy statistics. 10.19 Taking into account both the policy needs and prevailing data compilation practices, countries are encouraged to: (a) Release their monthly data within two calendar months after the end of the reference month, at least at the most aggregated level; (b) Release their quarterly data within three calendar months after the end of the reference quarter; and (c) Release their annual data within fifteen calendar months after the end of the reference year. 10.20 The early release of provisional estimates within one calendar month for monthly data on specific flows and products and within nine to twelve calendar months for annual data is encouraged. 10.22 Provisional data should be revised when new and more accurate information becomes available. Such practice is recommended if countries can ensure consistency between provisional and final data. 10.24 With respect to routine revisions, it is recommended that countries develop a revision policy that is synchronized with the release calendar. It is recom- mended that these revisions be subject to prior notification to users to explain why revisions are necessary and to provide information on their possible impact on the released outputs. 10.25 Countries are encouraged to develop a revision policy for energy statistics that is carefully managed and well-coordinated with other areas of statistics. 10.26 It is recommended that energy statistics be made available electronically, but countries are encouraged to choose the dissemination format that best suits their users’ needs. 10.27 Countries are encouraged to harmonize their data with international standards, follow the recommendations provided in chapter IX on data quality assur- ance and metadata for energy statistics, and develop and disseminate metadata in accordance with the recommendations provided. 10.28 It is recommended that countries disseminate their energy statistics internationally as soon as they become available to national users and without any additional restrictions. To ensure a speedy and accurate data transfer to international and regional organizations, it is recommended that countries use SDMX format in the exchange and sharing of their data. Chapter XI. Uses of basic energy statistics and balances 11.28 Due to differences between basic energy statistics/energy balances and energy accounts, countries are encouraged to clearly document and make available the methods used for the reallocation and adjustment of data provided by basic energy statistics and balances to energy accounts. 11.33 The list of indicators presented in chapter XI is not exhaustive. Countries are encouraged to develop the list of relevant indicators according to their policy concerns and data availability. 11.34 For greenhouse gas emissions, countries are encouraged to make additional efforts to verify the compiled data and make any necessary adjustments in order to ensure that the calculated emissions are internationally comparable. G. Implementation and revision policy 1.49. The present recommendations should be implemented by countries in a way appro- priate to their own circumstances, including identified user needs, resources, priorities and respondent burden. Additional guidance on more practical/technical matters (e.g., good prac- tices, country case studies, etc.) relevant to the implementation of IRES will be provided in the ESCM, which is envisaged to be updated more frequently than IRES. 1.50. Recommendations and encouragements. For the purposes of IRES, the term “recom- mended” refers to a standard with which countries should comply, while the term “encour- aged” indicates a desirable practice that is not part of the standard as such. With respect to issues that might be relevant to compilers and users of energy statistics but that are not explicitly covered in IRES, countries are encouraged to develop their own treatments and clearly document them in their metadata. 1.51. The IRES updating process is foreseen as a recurrent and well-organized procedure. While preparation of editorial amendments and clarifications beyond dispute is the respon- sibility of UNSD, any substantive changes in IRES will be discussed with countries and relevant working groups before being endorsed by the United Nations Expert Group on Energy Statistics and submitted to the United Nations Statistical Commission for adoption.  === ires-2018-page-029.pdf ===